Number of times cited according to CrossRef: Polyurethane Shear-Activated Adhesives: Effect of Counterface Chemistry. we are roving fiber glass in a plastic and we are using a mixture of epoxy resin as matrix, afterwhich it is cured. Dynamic properties of samples of an epoxy resin unfilled and filled with glass beads subjected to extensional creep were studied. Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine. and Paleomagnetism, History of On the untreated epoxy surface, the invasion of NAPL occurs in well‐developed channels which flow freely through the model. It has excellent adhesion, chemical resistance, heat resistance, Due to its special properties, YD-128 is generally used in many fields. George, 1993 (215) Critical ST γ c = 43-47 mJ/m 2; no temp cited Test liquids not known.DGEBA-amine. in Modeling Earth Systems (JAMES), Journal of Geophysical Research -128 is the most standard liquid resin … Hello, I am currently new in resin manufacturing and my problem now is how to control air bubbles and improve surface tension. Working off-campus? [34] This comparison strongly suggests that the RFGD‐treated polystyrene surface is demonstrably a better physical analog for the natural dolomite system than the untreated epoxy surface, while the other surfaces have significantly different surface free energies than those common to natural geologic media. Depending on the amount of NAPL invading and the duration of the experiment, stable channels may or may not eventually develop. The surface also proved to be stable under water, as demonstrated in Figure 2, a requirement for models intended for long‐term flow studies, and the very reason that the RFGD plasma treatment process was selected. Once the surface acclimatized to the atmosphere, a stable surface with a water contact angle of between 22° and 26° was achieved. [13] In contrast to this, Brown et al. Please check your email for instructions on resetting your password. Occhiello, 1991 (202) Contact angle θ W air bubbles and surface tension for epoxy resin chem1023 (Chemical) (OP) 8 Dec 15 14:48. Using the procedures described above, the polystyrene surface is applied to the epoxy models and bombarded with a reactive plasma forming gas, water vapor in this case, to generate a stable hydrophilic surface (Figure 1). [4] Two key properties greatly influence NAPL flow and residual distribution in fractures: the void geometry of the fracture network and the surface wettability of the fracture material. If you do not receive an email within 10 minutes, your email address may not be registered, Geology and Geophysics, Physical viscosity and surface tension of the resin, thus increasing the overall level of dispersion of the particles in the epoxy matrix15,30,36-38. Corrections for viscous-drag effects on the liquid surface tension measurements were also made. Therefore, in the vadose zone, this means that a liquid, either NAPL or water, will preferentially coat the solid surface with respect to air. [1995] that on a flat, smooth piece of cured epoxy, water had a contact angle of 20° in air, implying that the epoxy is hydrophilic. Dodecane dyed with 0.05 g/L Sudan IV was also used for visualization experiments because small amounts of dye appeared to have only a small affect on the fluids surface tension as measured using the techniques described below (Table 6). Oceanography, Interplanetary Significant research has gone into establishing the statistical distribution of apertures within fractures [e.g., Hakami and Barton, 1990; Vickers et al., 1992; Brown et al., 1986], but there has been little research into the effects of different surface properties on NAPL flow and residual distribution. [1996] reported contact angles between 61.22° and 64.72° for polished epoxy surfaces, 53.00° and 61.17° for cast epoxy surfaces, and 58.91° and 62.96° for roughened epoxy surfaces. This value is slightly above the value determined for the epoxy itself (see Fig. [18] For comparison, the carbon‐oxygen ratio as determined using electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) is also listed in Table 1. 324 Liquid Epoxy Resin offers a lower surface tension (≈ 15%) than other reactive The coating was inspected to ensure complete, uniform coverage, and additional coatings were applied if necessary. The characteristics and proportions of the Polymeric system. Polystyrene, which has a fairly simple preparation procedure, is easily dissolved in a solvent to create a thin coating, and had been demonstrated to have a stable surface after treatment by Schamberger et al. This is represented by a three-member ring containing an oxygen atom that is bonded with two carbon atoms already united in some other way. Silane modification of glass and silica surfaces to obtain equally oil‐wet surfaces in glass‐covered silicon micromodel applications. It builds up quickly: a single coat of 105 Epoxy Resin® with 207 Special Clear Hardener® offers about four times the thickness of a typical coat of polyurethane varnish. However, this methodology is not very accurate and does not provide a very useful characterization of the surface. Some sources quote the critical surface tension in units of mN/m, which is equivalent to surface energy. Traditionally plasma treatments have been used for surface cleaning or etching of polymer surfaces. Composition and Structure, Atmospheric This type of flow involves a series of pulses though the zones of narrow aperture and migration of discrete blobs in the zones of large aperture. After 24 hours of contact the fluid will have dissolved slowly into each other, dropping the interfacial tension to 43 mJ/m2. resins which entangle with the low surface energy substrate when the solvent swells the surface. Enter your email address below and we will send you your username, If the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to retrieve your username. It is important to note, however, that for each of these FC‐75‐water triple‐point contact angle measurements the solid surface was completely submerged in water, so once again the surface is “dirty,” and its behavior could change completely if FC‐75 were to be introduced first. Whereas surface tension is more about the strength of the resin's surface, viscosity is all about the movement. To learn about our use of cookies and how you can manage your cookie settings, please see our Cookie Policy. The FC‐75 wicks directly into the rock. Geophysics, Marine In NAPL‐water systems below the water table, the behavior is much more complex, depending on the mineralogy of the solid surface, the aqueous chemistry, the NAPL composition, the amount of organic material present, the saturation history of the medium and the duration of contact. [3] Over the past decade a substantial body of work has been done on characterizing the behavior of NAPLs in various geologic media [Kueper, 1989; Schwille, 1988] (see Pankow and Cherry [1996] for an overview). 1) and is a consequence of the TONOX having a surface tension of 49.8 dyne an-' at 31.8"C. In Foister's' study the surface tension values for the The sample was stored in a glass petri dish with a loose cover and reexamined periodically with each of the measurement liquids. A great deal of work potentially remains to be done in both the characterization of geologic materials and in examination of the effects of time and contact on the flow behaviors of multiphase systems. Applying several coats of thinned epoxy, instead of one coat of unthinned epoxy, seems to work well. Temperature differences will produce surface tension which means bubbles can be trapped when the resin is poured. Viscosity refers to the thickness ( or flow resistance ) of epoxy resin. It should be noted that the addition of an organic dye often has a profound affect on the surface tension and resultant interfacial tension behavior of a fluid [Tuck et al., 2003; Jeong et al., 2002]. These results make clear the importance of accurately characterizing the geologic system to be modeled. When capillary pressure is controlling invasion of a nonwetting fluid into the replicas with RFGD plasma‐treated surfaces, flow does not initially occur as a continuous stream forming into well‐developed channels. While this leaves an obvious area for further research, the methodology discussed in this paper provides a way to quantify end‐member surface chemical systems. Two different techniques were used to characterize the cured epoxy surface properties: wetting measurements and vapor adsorption measurements by means of inverse gas chromatography (IGC). [32] Certainly, the contact angles measured when the fluid interface is fresh will not be the same as the contact angles found when the fluids dissolve into one another as interface ages. Two different techniques were used to characterize the cured epoxy surface … Analysis of mechanism, Nonaqueous phase liquid transport and cleanup: 2. (1896-1977), Chinese Journal of Geophysics (2000-2018), International The effect of changes in surface wettability on two-phase saturated flow in horizontal replicas of single natural fractures, RFGD‐treated polystyrene (5 min experiment). [36] It should also be noted that measurement of air‐perfluorocompound contact angles on the dolomite chips is impossible. 52 ePoxy resin reActive diluents Mono-, di-, and multifunctional glycidyl ethers which can be used to reduce the viscosity of typical epoxy resins without causing significant changes in final physical properties. -128 is the most standard liquid resin … We use cookies to improve your website experience. Objects, Solid Surface FC‐75 drops on both the treated polystyrene surface and the dolomite chip tended to ball‐up and actually roll off the surface, something which did not occur on either of the other two solid surfaces. Obviously, just from this brief sampling it is clear that a more accurate and repeatable method of characterizing the surfaces being examined is necessary, and significantly more work on accurately characterizing “natural rock” is also called for. Also reported were S‐Area DNAPL a solvent mixture measurements on Lockport Dolomite in air, which ranged between 164° and 169°, and in water, which ranged from 16° to 19°. By experimentally determining surface tension, dissolved gas concentration, and the gas diffusion coefficient, they were able to predict time-dependent changes in bubble radii. In contrast, RFGD‐treated polystyrene has surface tension components and parameters very similar to those of the listed geologic media. Next, the inlet to the chamber is opened and the distilled water allowed to degas for a minimum of 10 min. One of the major unresolved issues of this study is the relationship between “clean” laboratory measurements and the actual behavior of “dirty” flow systems. After the desired time lag, the power is turned off, the vapor inlet is closed, the chambers bell jar reopened and the fracture sample removed. The Lifshitz-van der Waals components of the surface tension were found to be similar for both epoxy systems, while the acid-base components were found to be slightly different. The surface properties of the liquid epoxies were evaluated by wetting measurements using a dynamic contact angle analysis (DCA). The same temperature dependence was observed: the surface tension decreased with temperature, following a linear regression. If you are working with molds that are oven-safe, you can also gently warm them (generally to 150F) before use. Prior to use, a liquid nitrogen trap on the chamber is filled to prevent contamination by oil from the vacuum pump, and a fresh supply of distilled water is added to the vapor intake tubing. Once the surface is modified it is easier for the adhesive to flow out on or wet the treated surface and make a suitable bond. The epoxy was determined to have surface properties as follows: γ = 62.3, γ LW = 39, γ AB = 23.3, γ ⊕ = 0, and γ = 23.3 mJ/m 2, where γ is the total surface tension of the solid, γ LW is the Lifshitz‐van der Waals (LW) surface tension component, γ AB is the Lewis acid base (AB) surface tension component, γ is the electron‐donor (negative) parameter, and γ ⊕ is the electron‐acceptor (positive) … Abstract The authors report the temperature dependence of surface tension of a commercially available epoxy resin at temperatures ranging from 20 to 60°C. This polymer reorientation behavior might also explain the differing surface properties reported in the literature. The temperature dependence of the liquid surface tension for both epoxy systems was investigated. Different materials have The newly emplaced oxygen functional groups are reoriented or diffused away from the surface and into the bulk of the polymer, leaving lower‐energy, hydrophobic polymer segments exposed at the surface [Penn and Wang, 1994]. The Lifshitz-van der Waals components of the surface tension were found to be similar for both epoxy systems, while the acid-base components were found to be slightly different. growth in autoclaved epoxy laminates, which instead considered nitrogen as the primary diffusible species. In this paper, the terms oil‐wet and water‐wet will be used to refer specifically to near‐zero contact angles. These finding demonstrate that surfaces should only be declared to be hydrophilic or hydrophobic with respect to a specific chemical system to be examined. and you may need to create a new Wiley Online Library account. While frequently described as immiscible fluids, the solubilities of NAPL in water are, in fact, sufficiently high to create significant groundwater contamination [Pankow and Cherry, 1996]. To create the latter two types of surfaces, polystyrene was applied to the surface of untreated epoxy models as follows. Characterization of clinically relevant model bacterial strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa for anti-biofilm testing of materials. Processes in Geophysics, Atmospheric The ESCA measurements were preformed by Richard Nowak, of the University at Buffalo Surface Chemistry Group, on a PHI 5100 ESCA with a hemispherical analyzer and a Matteson FTIR with an ATR attachment. RFGD plasma treatment alters the composition and structure of a few molecular layers at or near the surface of the material. Applying several coats of thinned epoxy, instead of one coat of unthinned epoxy, seems to work well. Register to receive personalised research and resources by email, Characterization of epoxy resin surface energetics, Laboratoire de Technologie des Composites et Polymères, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland, Department of Chemical Engineering, Box 351750, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1750, USA, /doi/pdf/10.1163/156856101743382?needAccess=true, Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology. WEST SYSTEM Epoxy resin and hardeners are the base components of two-part, marine-grade epoxy originally developed specifically for use in boat building. Oxygen, air and water vapor plasmas can all be used to introduce oxygen containing functional groups, the presence of which dramatically increase the surface free energy and the hydrophilicity of the polymer surface. Generally, with the exceptions of organic rich matter (such as coal, peat, humus, biofilms and some black shale), graphite, sulfur, talc and talc‐like silicates, and many sulfides, most natural media will be preferentially wet by water [Mercer and Cohen, 1990; Anderson, 1987]. [31] There are, however, difficulties in directly comparing these results. For comparison with these results, Arthur D. Little, Inc. [1981] reported Lockport dolomite‐tetrachloroethene contact angle measurements in air of 171° and in water of between 16° and 21°. It has excellent adhesion, chemical resistance, heat resistance, Due to its special properties, YD-128 is generally used in many fields. Thus the treated surface of the epoxy will degrade back to its untreated state in a matter of days or even hours. [23] The ability of a freshly treated surface to react with its surroundings has actually been used intentionally as a postplasma treatment to deliberately bond specific species onto the surface prior to exposure to air [Liston et al., 1994]. The surface properties of the liquid epoxies were evaluated by wetting measurements using a dynamic contact angle analysis (DCA). Modification of the polystyrene surface by radio frequency glow discharge (RFGD) plasma exposure. Table 1 clearly correlates the decrease in contact angle with a decrease in the C/O ratio, confirming the increased presence of oxygen radical groups. This means that the solid surface is not clean and may, in fact, be significantly altered by its contact with the dodecane. Introduction D.E.R. The surface properties of the liquid epoxies were evaluated by wetting measurements using a dynamic contact angle analysis (DCA). The Lifshitz-van der Waals components of the surface energy were observed to be nearly the same for both epoxies, confirming that both resins have the same potential for non-specific interactions, in both liquid and solid states. Related to Geologic Time, Mineralogy The sessile water drop contact angles measured in air on the epoxy used in this study ranged between about 59° and 64°, agreeing with the findings of Geller et al. Recoating Epoxy & Urethane. The water vapor inlet is then opened slowly and the water vapor supply release adjusted until the meter reads a constant 200 mtorr. [22] Immediately after treatments of greater than 1 min in duration, the sessile drop water contact angle on the polystyrene surface was ∼0°, so the surface can be accurately described as water‐wet (Figure 2). Learn about our remote access options, Earth Science and Science Education Department, Buffalo State College, Buffalo, New York, USA, Department of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA, Department of Geology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA. All of these measurements were performed at an angle of 45°, which yields a direct measurement of the types and relative amounts of atoms up to a depth of approximately 20 nm [Penn and Wang, 1994]. Surface Energy Data for Epoxies and epoxy resins Source (a )Mst.Type b Data(c) Comments(d) Wu, 1971 (41) Critical ST γ c = 44 mJ/m 2; 20 oC Test liquids not known.Amine-cured epoxy resin. Geophysics, Biological [17] The most common and affordable method of characterizing the degree of surface modification is measurement of the contact angles of a variety of liquids of known properties on the solid surface [Liston et al., 1994]. Epoxy and untreated polystyrene are the only solids where γ is less than 27.9. This clearly demonstrates that surface wettability indeed plays a key role in determining the flow characteristics and ultimate residual distribution of NAPL. [9] Adsorption and deposition of NAPL components on organic matter can significantly increase the likelihood that NAPL will be or will become the wetting fluid, and NAPL contact angles have been shown to decrease with duration of contact. Here the contact angle measured through the water averaged 63°. Even with an extensive body of work in the field, understanding of the flow behavior and residual distribution of NAPLs in fractured media is still under development, with many unresolved issues. The polar and dispersive components could be obtained through the following equation: (1) γ l (1 + cos θ) = 2 (γ l p γ f p) 1 / 2 + 2 (γ l d γ f d) 1 / 2 (2) γ f = γ f p + γ f d where γ l, γ l d and γ l p were the surface tension of the test liquid, and its dispersive and polar components, respectively. Because both the amount of unreacted product and the age of the epoxy surface control the resulting surface chemistry of the epoxy, different laboratories using exactly the same epoxy might get significantly different wetting behaviors. Technically, to completely characterize the modified surface, contact angles of a series of apolar and polar liquids should be used to determine the surface tension components and parameters. By closing this message, you are consenting to our use of cookies. Measurement of the triple‐point contact angle of water in dodecane on epoxy, which averaged ∼92° through the water, seemed to indicate that epoxy is very slightly hydrophobic (Table 7). [39] The importance of the effects differences in wettability on flow behavior can be demonstrated by a visual evaluation of the simple flow shown in Figure 8. In a two liquid system, surface chemists consider the term “water‐wet” to mean a water contact angle of 0°, and “oil‐wet” to mean an oil contact angle of 0° [Adamson, 1990]. WEST SYSTEM epoxy is also an excellent moisture barrier, stabilizing the surface so … The surface properties of the liquid epoxies were evaluated by wetting measurements using a dynamic contact angle analysis (DCA). 6. resins which entangle with the low surface energy substrate when the solvent swells the surface. Instead, invasion occurs as a series of stringers or discrete blobs which are cut into sections by zones of narrow aperture. Chips of dolomite were prepared using an Isomet diamond‐edge low speed rock saw and precision positioning knobs to ensure the creation of smooth parallel edges (Buehler, Ltd.). During Epoxy Application, you want to roll the edge with wet epoxy before any product flows over to break the surface tension of the product. [1994], was chosen for use. The researchers then compared these results to water‐air contact angles on smooth granite (53.00°–59.35°) and on glass (7.47°–34.30°) and determined that the epoxy was a better match for the granite than glass, which is frequently taken to be a good representative of silicate mineral surfaces [see Wan et al., 1996]. [2] Nonaqueous phase liquids (NAPLs), composed of one or more organic liquids which exist as a stable separate phase in equilibrium with water, have long been recognized as serious and persistent groundwater contaminants [Mercer and Cohen, 1990; Pankow and Cherry, 1996]. HELOXY modifiers offer: Improved cured system flexibility, increased peel and impact strength, increased levels of filler loading, improved resin wetting action, and reduced viscosity and surface tension. If you are working with molds that are oven-safe, you can also gently warm them (generally to 150F) before use. Gently warming your casting top/mold/bezel with a heat gun is an easy way to warm up the area. These measurements presumably represent averages. Viscosity refers to the thickness (or flow resistance) of epoxy resin. It the surface tension of the coating cannot over come the surface tension of the substrate, the bond of the coating is superficial and can be usually peeled off in sheets. A. Kelsey, M. A. Prieksat, M. G. Piepho, C. Shan, and M. D. Ankeny, Organic dye effects on dense nonaqueous phase liquids (DNAPL) entry pressure in water saturated porous media, The hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity of clay minerals, Implementation of new and existing analytical methods used towards investigations of radio frequency glow discharge plasma modified polymeric surfaces, Multitechnique surface analytical study of a segmented block copolymer poly (ether‐urethane) modified through an H, A surface spectroscopic and wettability study of a segmented block copolymer poly (etherurethane), Monolayer chemical lithography and characterization of flouropolymer films, Adhesive electroless metalization of flouropolymeric substances, Reconstruction and geostatistical analysis of multiscale fracture apertures in a large block of welded tuff, Improved glass micromodel methods for studies of flow and transport in fractured porous media, Glass casts of rock fracture surfaces: A new tool for studying flow and transport. Values of γ < 27.9 mJ/m2 indicate a hydrophobic surface, which means that epoxy is not a good analog for most geologic materials. However, computations of the accepticity and donicity parameters showed that both cured epoxies are predominantly basic, but also possess non-negligible acidity. The models are lying horizontally with the inlet to the right and outlet to the left. The best resins for doming are those that have a … Epoxy Flowing over in an even sheet. Geophysics, Geomagnetism 54 ePoxy resin modifiers Resins to improve epoxy systems. [8] With only rare examples, such as mercury, liquids will preferentially wet solid surfaces with respect to air [Mercer and Cohen, 1990]. Using this method, the degree of alteration of the surface chemistry of polymer fracture models can be controlled, allowing the creation of models with a variety of different wettabilities. Journal of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy, Nonlinear People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read. This paper addresses the issue of accurately characterizing the surface chemistry of a typical epoxy used in laboratory multiphase flow studies and comparing that surface to a polystyrene surface and a radio frequency glow discharge treated polystyrene surface. After exposure to the atmosphere the contact angle changes with time until a stable state is achieved. [1998], while stating that epoxy resins are often called hydrophobic in the literature, found their rough cast epoxy to be “slightly hydrophilic, especially when the surfaces had been wet before or the air was humid.” No methodology or criteria for this determination is cited. The radio frequency (RF) power is turned on, starting the clock, and the wattage is quickly adjusted to the desired level. [38] This study is an initial step in addressing the issue of surface characterization of geologic and modeling materials, and their potential importance in accurately modeling multiphase flow in the subsurface. It is easier to compare the behavior of these surfaces by inspection of actual photographs of the perfluorocompound FC‐75 in water on each of them (Figures 4-Figures 4–7). The present invention also relates to a method for producing a fibre reinforced composite material, and a fibre reinforced composite material when produced by the method. and Petrology, Exploration Antimicrobial assessment of phage therapy using a porcine model of biofilm infection. The surface tension of pure epoxy was found to be 30.6 mN/m, which matched well with another experimental measurement . Some sources quote the critical surface tension in units of mN/m, which is equivalent to surface energy. Acclimatization of various exposures of polystyrene surfaces to the atmosphere. Hello, I am currently new in resin manufacturing and my problem now is how to control air bubbles and improve surface tension. Some resins have a low viscosity ( thin ) and some have a high viscosity ( thick ). Not only do fractures provide both horizontal and vertical conduits for extensive NAPL migration, they also allow NAPL migration to occur in pathways entirely unassociated with the local groundwater flow [Reitsma and Kueper, 1994]. The best resins for … Properties of Rocks, Computational For this study, a commercially available perfluorocarbon that has low toxicity, would not damage the polymers used in model creation, and has properties similar to common DNAPL contaminants was selected (Material safety data sheet for perfluorocompound FC‐75, 8 pages, 3M, St. Paul, Minnesota, 2003, hereinafter referred to as 3M, 2003) (Table 4). [21] In order to create a lasting hydrophilic surface, a stable “one part” solid polymer was needed for RFGD treatment. Ledru et al. Evaluations of the acid-base components of the work of adhesion by DCA and the Gibbs free energy change by IGC suggest that both cured epoxies show non-negligible specific interactions with both acidic and basic probes. and Chemical Oceanography, Physical The inlet is closed and the bell jar is briefly returned to a pressure of between 10 and 15 mtorr. Influence of surface roughness. Persoff and Pruess [1995] cite the observations of Kovscek et al. The chamber can handle samples up to approximately 23 cm by 23 cm. [14] Three different model surfaces were used in this study: epoxy (Stycast 1267 two‐part Epoxy Resin, Stycast, Inc.), untreated polystyrene (Scientific Polymer Products, Inc.), and polystyrene treated using radio frequency glow discharge (RFGD) plasma (also referred to as low‐temperature plasma). [33] Also of interest in Table 8 are the triple‐point contact angle measurements of the dolomite surface in comparison to the other surfaces examined. [37] The results of this study indicate that standard epoxy surfaces are not very good analogs for most geologic media with regard to multiphase flow studies and that the results of laboratory multiphase flow studies which utilized epoxy models should potentially be reexamined. One example of such a block tracked over a period of 180 days is shown in Figure 3. Surface properties were determined using direct contact angle measurements of polar and apolar liquids on flat test samples. To measure contact angles in the water‐dodecane system, each of the solids had to be immersed in the dodecane (which is less dense than water) and the water drops deposited onto the surface. Gently warming your casting top/mold/bezel with a heat gun is an easy way to warm up the area. Physics, Comets and By employing a new strategy, ADSA was used to monitor simultaneously the surface tension and the density of these reactive mixtures from sessile drops. The polar and dispersive components could be obtained through the following equation: (1) γ l (1 + cos θ) = 2 (γ l p γ f p) 1 / 2 + 2 (γ l d γ f d) 1 / 2 (2) γ f = γ f p + γ f d where γ l, γ l d and γ l p were the surface tension of the test liquid, and its dispersive and polar components, respectively. This occurs because upon reexposure to air, residual free radicals on the treated surface will react with atmospheric oxygen and water vapor [Liston et al., 1994]. However, there is no agreement on how well or poorly such an analog replicates the surface chemistry of geologic materials, nor is there a satisfactory analysis of the surface properties of epoxy. [5] There have been several studies of flow in actual fractured rock, but given the opaque nature of the material, it is not possible to visually track fluid pathways during the course of the experiment [Reitsma and Kueper, 1994; Longino and Kueper, 1999; Chown et al., 1997]. 6. A. Gardella, personal communication, 1999). Our epoxy and additives are formulated to provide maximum physical properties and, at the same time, to be as easy to use as possible. If the substrate’s surface energy is 30 dyne/cm or lower, epoxy adhesives do not adhere well. Models were allowed to dry and degas for a minimum of 24 hours. Two different techniques were used to characterize the cured epoxy surface properties: wetting … Table 1. Experiments have demonstrated that as little as 0.508 g/L of Sudan IV in tetrachloroethene (PCE) decreased the solvents interfacial tension with water by approximately 15% [Tuck, 1999]. Processes, Information In the previously cited study, modified polystyrene was found to be stable over time and the modification was effective some significant depth. Dodecane was used in order to allow future comparison of the flow behaviors of a LNAPL and a DNAPL. During Epoxy Application, you want to roll the edge with wet epoxy before any product flows over to break the surface tension of the product. However, the highly hydrophilic behavior of the dolomite chip indicated by the low, but nonzero, contact angle measurement at the dolomite‐water‐FC‐75 triple‐point, which was measured on a water‐saturated chip of dolomite, is probably a good indication of the potential behavior of a saturated dolomite aquifer prior to contamination, i.e., a low but nonzero water contact angle with respect to the invading NAPL. Whenn suatorsm adeo fe poxyresna reu sedo utdoothe presence of contaminants on the surface of the insulator becomes a serious problem. 1995; Geller and Pruess, 1995; Hakami, 1995; Su, 1995; Geller et al., 1996; Brown et al., 1998]. However, for simple determinations of the relative effectiveness of the treatment, measurement of water contact angles is usually considered sufficient [Penn and Wang, 1994]. The epoxy was determined to have surface properties as follows: γ = 62.3, γLW = 39, γAB = 23.3, γ⊕ = 0, and γ = 23.3 mJ/m2, where γ is the total surface tension of the solid, γLW is the Lifshitz‐van der Waals (LW) surface tension component, γAB is the Lewis acid base (AB) surface tension component, γ is the electron‐donor (negative) parameter, and γ⊕ is the electron‐acceptor (positive) parameter. Addition of GNPs to epoxy increased the surface tension to 32.7 mN/m. Through time the resident water is almost completely displaced, with few significant zones of residual water remaining. In order to directly observe flow behaviors several researchers have used translucent epoxy models, the surface properties of which have been very poorly characterized [Gentier, 1986; Gentier et al., 1989; Hakami and Barton, 1990; Persoff and Pruess, 1993, 1995; Cox et al,. Experimental studies, Effects of pure and dyed PCE on physical and interfacial properties of remedial solutions, Foam flow mechanisms and behavior in a single rough‐walled fracture, The behavior of dense, non‐aqueous phase liquid contaminants in heterogeneous porous media, The behavior of dense, nonaqueous phase liquids in fractured clay and rock, A laboratory and field study of wettability adjustment in waterflooding, Plasma surface modification of polymers for improved adhesion: A critical review, Nonwetting phase retention and mobilization in rock fractures, Capillary pressure and relative transmissivity relationships describing two‐phase flow through rough‐walled fractures in geologic materials, A review of immiscible fluids in the subsurface, Wetting phase permeability in a partially saturated horizontal fracture, Fifth Annual International Conference on High‐Level Radioactive Waste Management, Gravity‐driven infiltration instability in initially dry nonhorizontal fractures, Some physical and chemical properties of reservoir rock bearing on the accumulation and discharge of oil, Dense Chlorinated Solvents and Other DNAPLs in Groundwater, Chemical modification of polymer surfaces: A review, Flow visualization and relative permeability measurements in rough‐walled fractures, Fourth International High‐Level Radioactive Waste Management Conference, Two‐phase flow visualization and relative permeability measurement in natural rough‐walled fractures, On two‐phase relative permeability and capillarity in rough‐walled rock fractures, Laboratory measurement of capillary pressure‐saturation relationships in a rock fracture, Oil recovery by surface film drainage in mixed‐wettability rocks, Surface chemical studies of aging and solvent extraction effects on plasma‐treated polystyrene, Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Porous and Fractured Media, Predictive modelling of NAPL injection tests in variable aperture spatially correlated fractures, Water infiltration and intermittent flow in rough‐walled fractures, Discussion of “DNAPL migration through a fractured perching layer” by D. B. Stephens, J. Contact angle of an uncured epoxy adhesive on four surfaces of varying critical surface tension Ideally for an adhesive to fully wet a surface, the adhesive should have a lower surface tension, γ, than the substrate’s surface energy (or critical surface tension), γ c . Indeed, all condensed phase matter will attract water to a considerable degree [van Oss, 1994] and a simple examination of the water‐air‐solid will not necessarily give any clear indication of the behavior of a water‐NAPL system on the same solid. Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab. Periodic testing of the approximate water contact angles on the rough surfaces of each of the treated models after use also confirmed both the longevity and stability of RFGD plasma treatment though use and time. [1996]. [27] The flow studies described in the literature have typically been performed using air, an inert gas, or an LNAPL as the nonwetting fluid because the commonly available DNAPLs are toxic and will dissolve the epoxy used to create the transparent models [Gentier, 1986; Gentier et al., 1989; Hakami and Barton, 1990; Persoff and Pruess, 1993, 1995; Cox et al., 1995; Geller and Pruess, 1995; Hakami, 1995; Su, 1995; Geller et al., 1996; Brown et al., 1998]. POOR SURFACE WETTING This is patently not the case for the RFGD plasma‐treated hydrophilic models. Some resins have a low viscosity (thin) and some have a high viscosity (thick). [12] Purely on the basis of on measurement of water‐air‐solid contact angles, significant uncertainty has arisen in the literature as to whether the commonly used epoxies are hydrophobic or hydrophilic. The characteristics and proportions of the Polymeric system. The reactive plasma “knocks off” pieces of the polymer chains exposed at the surface, creating reactive sites on the solid which are then filled by hydroxyl ions or other oxygen radicals (Figure 1). [26] Three different test liquids were also characterized for later use in two‐phase flow studies: dodecane, a light (L) NAPL, perfluorocompound FC‐75, a nontoxic dense (D) NAPL, and water dyed with known amounts of Liquitint Blue HP (Milliken Chemcial). surface tension of the epoxy/TONOX mixture was 40.9 dyne cm-'. Two commercially available amine-cured epoxy resin formulations were studied under different environmental conditions with regard to the surface tension evolution using axisymmetric drop shape analysis (ADSA). However, when reactive gasses are used, plasma treatments can also be used to introduce functional groups to polymer surfaces. While surface modification might be needed in some cases, typically it will add cost, Prepared fracture samples are placed face up and centered inside of the plasma chamber's bell jar. [16] This process has been used extensively by the Surface Chemistry Group at the University at Buffalo and is capable of producing stable hydrophilic surfaces on a variety of normally extremely hydrophobic materials such as poly(methyl methacrylates), poly(ether‐urethane), and polystyrene [Vargo, 1990; Vargo et al., 1991a, 1991b, 1992, 1993; Hook et al., 1991; Schamberger et al., 1994]. In summary, proper epoxy resin seal coats are subject to your work space environment and your preparation efforts. As it has a low surface tension, it is added as a wetting agent (surfactant) for contact with glass fibres. Chemical surface treatments have serious problems with reproducibility and have proven to be transient under aqueous conditions [Liston et al., 1994]. Two different techniques were used to characterize the cured epoxy surface properties: wetting … While surface modification might be needed in some cases, typically it will add cost, The acclimatization process also explains the increased presence of bonded oxygen species after treatment with inert gas plasmas, such as N2, in ESCA analysis of plasma treated surfaces [Liston et al., 1994; Schamberger et al., 1994]. In the NAPL research literature, however, it has been commonly assumed that nearly all geologic material is water‐wet or “perfectly wetting”; that is, water has a near‐zero contact angle [Nicholl and Glass, 1994; Nicholl et al., 1994; Reitsma and Kueper, 1994; Mendoza, 1992]. This is a light sanding and doesn’t need to be too abrasive, it simply provides an added assurance that the epoxy will coat properly. [20] Plain epoxy proved to be unstable under RFGD plasma treatment. Journal of Advances [24] The longevity of the RFGD‐treated surface was tested on flat blocks of polystyrene coated epoxy. The common assumption has been that the lower the water contact angle, the more likely water will be the wetting phase. Long‐term persistence of treated polystyrene surface. Because you broke the surface tension with wet product beforehand, you’ll see in the photo shown below how the epoxy flows over in a nice even sheet. Another reason this method is greatly favored for characterization of treated polymers is the fact that as long as the liquid does not penetrate the polymer, contact angle measurement is one of the most surface‐sensitive methods, characterizing only the outmost 0.5nm or less of the material [Penn and Wang, 1994]. Break the surface tension by rolling your Edge with wet epoxy first. It is unclear exactly how the behavior of the fluids changes through time with prolonged contact. Some epoxy systems have additives that can be mixed into the epoxy that will reduce surface tension. This might account for the epoxy's slightly hydrophobic behavior. A substrate must have surface energy that is close to or higher than the epoxy’s surface energy in order to bond well with epoxy resins. 5 Howick Place | London | SW1P 1WG. Perfluorocompound in water on dolomite with θ, Perfluorocompound in water on polystyrene exposed to RFGD plasma for 80 s with θ, Perfluorocompound in water on untreated epoxy with θ, Perfluorocompound in water on untreated polystyrene with θ. The bell jar is then sealed and placed under a vacuum of between 10 and 15 mtorr for a minimum of 1 hour. Table 1. Once the surface is modified it is easier for the adhesive to flow out on or wet the treated surface and make a suitable bond. we are roving fiber glass in a plastic and we are using a mixture of epoxy resin as matrix, afterwhich it is cured. Certainly, this behavior is significantly different from the behavior demonstrated by both the untreated polystyrene and epoxy surfaces. Values of γ < 27.9 indicate a hydrophobic surface, which suggests that epoxy is not necessarily a good analog for most geologic materials [van Oss and Giese, 1995]. Geophysics, Mathematical D.E.R. 3099067 Small Bodies, Solar Systems The resultant models were found to be durable, long lasting, and a potentially very useful alternative to the more typical epoxy models. The migration of NAPLs through fractured bedrock has been recognized as a widespread problem at sites throughout North America. [1] Epoxy models have been used as analogs for fractured rock surfaces in many laboratory investigations of multiphase flow processes. Do not brush over inconsistent epoxy seal coat areas, that will most likely reduce the surface tension and result in a larger fish eye or separation. The contact angle of epoxy resin was measured for various types of samples according to the methodology provided in the literature . Whereas surface tension is more about the strength of the resin's surface, viscosity is all about the movement. Physics, Astrophysics and Astronomy, Perspectives of Earth and Space Scientists, I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of Use, Wettability literature survey—part 5: The effect of wettability on relative permeability, The role of capillary pressure in the S area landfill, American Society for Testing and Materials International, Standard test method for interfacial tension of oil against water by ring method, designation: D 971–91, The effect of polar impurities upon capillary and surface phenomena in petroleum production, Correlation between the surfaces of natural rock joints, Experimental observation of fluid flow channels in a single fracture, The use of upward hydraulic gradients to arrest downward DNAPL migration in rock fractures, Experimental and numerical aqueous flow through a partially saturated fracture, Sixth Annual International Conference on High‐Level Radioactive Waste Management, The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Waterflooding, Subsurface contamination by dense non‐aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) chemicals, On water infiltration in rough‐walled fractures, Proceedings of the Sixth Annual International Conference on High‐Level Radioactive Waste Management, Preliminary studies of water seepage through rough‐walled fractures, Morphologie et comportement hydromecanique d'une fracture naturelle dans un granite sous contrainte normale, Laboratory testing of the voids of a fracture, Surface and electrokinetic properties of clays and other mineral particles, untreated and treated with organic or inorganic cations, Aperture measurements and flow experiments using transparent replicas of rock joints, Rock Joints, Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Rock Joints, Silanization of radio frequency glow discharge modified expanded poly(tetrafluoroethylene) using (aminopropyl)triethoxysilane, Nonaqueous phase liquid transport and cleanup: 1. 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